In: Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Computing, Communication and Automation (ICCCA); April 29-30, 2016; Noida, India:399-404. Development of a computer-aided tool for the pattern recognition of facial features in diagnosing Turner syndrome: comparison of diagnostic accuracy with clinical workers. Now we will look at an example of how utilitarianism may be used in a medical context. Epub 2019 Apr 11. In order to meet these challenges effectively, we need to identify how nurses contribute the resolution of these dilemmas. According to consequentialism, you should always strive to bring about good consequences, rather than simply obeying an arbitrary set of ethical rules. Select Accept to consent or Reject to decline non-essential cookies for this use. An official website of the United States government. In practice this a very difficult thing to do to step outside of the values we have been brought up with and the state of being alienated itself often causes unhappiness within the individual. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. Chen S, Pan ZX, Zhu HJ, et al. 8600 Rockville Pike Senior Lecturer/ Researcher Anglia Ruskin University UK/ SAMs TT. Utilitarianism in Public Health January 2016 . moral judgments are supposed to be a matter of simple consequentialism: you add up how much suffering you think is caused by an action and balance it against the amount of good. Four major themes emerged: 'best for the patient', 'accountability', 'collaboration and conflict' and 'concern for others'. The oppressors force is relentless to crush the minority rebellion, and the repressive measures adopted in retaliation is specifically for the purpose of forcing the minority to subjugation under its iron fist and crush the rebellion to render the minority weak in the future. In broad terms, a hedonist is someone who tries to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain. MobiHealthNews. One recent example that gained notoriety was an FRT system used to identify gay men from a set of photos that may have simply identified the kind of grooming and dress habits stereotypically associated with gay men.30 The developers of this FRT system did not intend it to be used for a clinical purpose but rather to illustrate how bias can influence FRT findings.30, Thankfully, potential solutions for addressing bias in FRT systems exist. Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopherEpicurus, its closely associated with English philosopherJeremy Bentham. April 11, 2017. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Accessed July 17, 2018. The standardized definition of Utilitarianism is that actions are defined as being "right" or "correct" based on the ability it has to promote happiness. Participants and context: Participants were interviewed about their contribution to the resolution of ethical dilemmas within the context of working in an acute hospital ward. To demonstrate this I will use an adapted version of John Harris Survival Lottery thought experiment (this thought experiment is a theoretical example used to highlight the objection and is not to be taken literally): Let us imagine we have five patients who require organ transplants. The consequentialism theory supports the decision because it has more benefits than harm. When a service user is speaking to a health care professional it is important for them to listen properly, for example not looking around and yawning, instead make eye contact and ensuring body language looks engaging. An interpretive exploratory study was undertaken, 11 registered acute care nurses working in a district general hospital in England were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews. 2022 Jan 6;10(1):12. doi: 10.3390/pharmacy10010012. Int J Environ Res Public Health. The principle of utilitarianism invites us to consider the immediate and the less immediate consequences of our actions. https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/. I intend to show that expecting individuals to take an impersonal standpoint in a decision that so greatly affects them is unrealistic and leads to alienation. He believed it was too difficult for a society to run if it had to consider the specific costs/benefits of every single action. In other words, the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or welfare. But if telling a lie would help save a person's life, consequentialism says it's the right thing to do. Putting ethics at the centre of everyday life. March 21, 2017. http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data. Applications of facial recognition technology (FRT) in health care settings have been developed to identify and monitor patients as well as to diagnose genetic, medical, and behavioral conditions. 2000 Mar;2(1):29-41. One way is by using ethical concepts to shed light on everyday practice. For example, if FRT diagnostic software develops to the point that it is used not just to augment but to replace a physicians judgment, ethical and legal questions may arise regarding which entity appropriately has liability.41 Or if FRT is used to monitor compliance, track patients whereabouts, or assist in other kinds of surveillance, patients trust in physicians could be eroded, undermining the therapeutic alliance. And it gives this general guidance on how to live: People should live so as to maximise good consequences. Consumerism in healthcare is not merely about supporting hospitals, insurance companies and other businesses. Nicole Martinez-Martin, JD, PhD is a postdoctoral fellow at the Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics in Stanford, California. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Machine learning and the profession of medicine. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. To identify the contribution made by nurses in achieving the resolution of ethical dilemmas in practice. FRT systems can store data as a complete facial image or as a facial template.34 Facial templates are considered biometric data and thus personally identifiable information.35 The idea that a photo can reveal private health information is relatively new, and privacy regulations and practices are still catching up. Is it okay to do bad things for a good cause? Tied up against the wall are a row of twenty Indians, most terrified, a few defiant, in front of them several armed men in uniform. Provide a clear and easy-to-understand guidelines. We've encountered a problem, please try again. The consequentialist could retort that in calculating what course of action is right, the individuals integrity can be taken into account. Some machine learning systems need continuous data input to train and improve the algorithms22 in a process that could be analogized to quality improvement research, for which informed consent is not regarded as necessary.23 For example, to improve its algorithms, FRT for genetic diagnosis would need to receive new data sets of images of patients already known to have specific genetic disorders.2 To maintain trust and transparency with patients, organizations should consider involving relevant community stakeholders in implementing FRT and in decisions about establishing and improving practices of informing patients about the organizations use of FRT. The ethics of clinical innovation in psychopharmacology: challenging traditional bioethics. Watson M. Keeping your machine learning models up-to-date: continuous learning with IBM Watson machine learning (part 1). It provides criteria and rules for moral evaluation and decision making. December 13, 2021Ana Langer is professor of the practice of public health and coordinator of the Women and Health Initiative at Harvard T.H. Protecting your patients interests in the era of big data, artificial intelligence, and predictive analytics. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. Some consequentialists even argue that alienation is necessary for social progress. We will close by outlining the areas where consequentialism is at odds with current medical law and how medical law should evolve according to consequentialism. Clinical Informatics News. For consequentialism this is not a problem, as the individual is just a mechanism for maximising overall happiness; they are instrumental. Nurses' professional relationships are central to nurses' contributions to the resolution of ethical dilemmas. AWB. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Consequentialism is an attractive ethical approach because it provides clear and practical guidance at least in situations where outcomes are easy to predict. FRT tools that assist with identification, monitoring, and diagnosis are expected to play a prominent role in the future of health care.6,18 Some applications have already been implemented.13,19 As FRT is increasingly utilized in health care settings, informed consent will need to be obtained not only for collecting and storing patients images but also for the specific purposes for which those images might be analyzed by FRT systems.20 In particular, patients might not be aware that their images could be used to generate additionally clinically relevant information. Facial shape analysis identifies valid cues to aspects of physiological health in Caucasian, Asian, and African populations. 13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example. P2. All rights reserved. Looks like youve clipped this slide to already. Accessed October 26, 2018. Jordan Belfort (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) in The Wolf of Wall Street is probably the popular idea of the . You can read four articles free per month. The same could be said for Jim who by doing nothing is responsible for the lives of the twenty Indians. Consequentialists may try to respond by arguing that alienation and taking an impersonal standpoint can be a virtue, but this seems a high price to pay if the agent is expected to disregard her most fundamental relationships, leaving her deeply unhappy. Consequentialism is a normative ethical theory, which means, it is a theory about ethical action and a proposed method for deciding how one should choose the right ethical act. By continuing to browse the site with cookies enabled in your browser, you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with our privacy policy. The legal and ethical concerns that arise from using complex predictive analytics in health care. M1- Analyse the impact of prevening discriminaion for individuals with diferent needs. The .gov means its official. The result justifies the means are based on a consequentialism. A few states, such as Illinois, have regulations that limit uses for which consumer biometric data can be collected.36 The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) governs handling of patients health records and personal health information and includes privacy protections for personally identifiable information. March 2018. https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b. Before Should Electronic Health Record-Derived Social and Behavioral Data Be Used in Precision Medicine Research? What matters is not so much the horrific act in itself but the outcome of that act. Youve read one of your four complimentary articles for this month. John Stuart Mill, a student of Benthams, disagreed. The Survival Lottery thought experiment highlights that there are actions which we consider morally right or wrong regardless of the amount of happiness or welfare produced. Consequentialism And Abortion. Front Neurosci. Killing the one Indian is going to have a profound effect on Jims life but for the consequentialist, Jims values are irrelevant. Should Watson Be Consulted for a Second Opinion? Published March 3, 2014. Haahr A, Norlyk A, Martinsen B, Dreyer P. Nurs Ethics. Utilitarianism judges consequences by a greatest good for the greatest number standard. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. X. For a theory often touted as promoting happiness, this is a problem. Especially in India the incidence of birth defects, cancers and diseases related to skin, lungs, brain, kidneys and liver are several times more dominant than any other communities.8 The river drainage has significant influence on the land use and socio-economic fabric of the basin. Given the exhaustion of most, if not all, negotiation and compromise within a diplomatic and political framework, the minority have two options: 1) rebellion till death; 2) subjugation till death. Rather than taking into account our own attitudes towards an action, by taking an objective standpoint we are able to remove ourselves from our usual social groups and ideologies which affect the way in which we act and look at a situation, and instead we should act without bias. Bias. Closed loop deep brain stimulation for PTSD, addiction, and disorders of affective facial interpretation: review and discussion of potential biomarkers and stimulation paradigms. October 6, 2017. http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx. If Jim refuses to kill anyone then he is therefore responsible for the deaths of the others. The Ethical Theory. Biom Technol Today. On the other, FRT medication adherence monitoring might not be sufficiently effective in improving adherence to outweigh the risk of undermining trust in the patient-physician relationship.42. Click here to review the details. In this chapter, we will begin by defining consequentialism, and contrasting it with deontology. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Privacy and data protections are key to advancing FRT and making it helpful. . Therefore, the absolutist claim that war is wholly a bad thing, or that it cannot be for a good cause despite its undesirability, is reasonably refuted. Consequentialism plays a huge role in this scenario as in both cases results of the decision made can be either positive or negative. This is a worldview without tragedy or realism. No one desires the strife of war in life, but it is sometimes necessary and morally justified to engage in war. Accessed October 26, 2018. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Background: PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology 1. 7. December 9, 2017. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php. She earned a JD from Harvard Law School and a PhD from the University of Chicago in comparative human development. FRT raises novel challenges regarding privacy. The committee evaluates the impact of relationships on health care. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, for example, does not apply to FRT for genetic diagnosis, as FRT does not fit GINAs definition of genetic testing or genetic information.39 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which protects people with disabilities from discrimination in public life (eg, schools or employment),40 would also likely not apply to FRT used for diagnostic purposes if the conditions diagnosed are currently unexpressed. MedCity News. If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. 2014 Nov;40(11):1529-42. doi: 10.1177/0146167214551154. Many forms of consequentialism have been proposed that attempt to deal with the issue of comparing moral value. Much of medical law is consequentialist in nature. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. Any prior commitments are disregarded or, if taken into consideration, are unlikely to have any substantial effect on the outcome. This button displays the currently selected search type. Disregarding our integrity and alienating ourselves from our values and social ideas is likely to result in a life of unhappiness. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. You can read the details below. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, Pub L No. Employers might also be interested in using FRT tools to predict mood or behavior as well as to predict longevity, particularly for use in wellness programs to lower employers health care costs. Washington Post. The site is secure. Consequentialism Ethics Consequentialism focus on the outcome or consequence of the actions. Accessed July 25, 2018. Use and Significance of Nursing Diagnosis in Hospital Emergencies: A Phenomenological Approach. It is frequently maintained that an exclusively consequentialist morality uniquely possesses certain advantages; I shall argue that the case for the superiority of consequentialism has yet to be made out. Many utilitarians take a hedonistic approach, saying that utility equates to happiness, so we should act to produce the greatest happiness, and to minimize pain and unhappiness. Among the most prominent approaches to ethics within philosophy is a highly influential position known as consequentialism. This structure means that the ends often justify the means when seeking to create a specific result. PMC One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. We should note that Consequentialism is based on two principles: Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act. More specifically, it protects the privacy of biometric data, including full-face photographs and any comparable images, which are directly related to an individual.37 Thus, facial images used for FRT health applications would be protected by HIPAA.38 Entities covered by HIPAA, including health care organizations, clinicians, and third-party business associates, would need to comply with HIPAA regulations regarding the use and disclosure of protected health information.38 However, clinicians should advise patients that there may be limited protections for storing and sharing data when using a consumer FRT tool. January 12, 2016. https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/. This site uses cookies to recognize users and allow us to analyse site usage. 2016;2016(5):2-3. It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma: A person should choose the action that maximises good consequences. and hey presto! 1-2.) One of the consequences of a breach of confidentiality could be that the patient will lose trust in Indeed, society as a whole is more important than any one person in the eyes of a Utilitarian. consequentialism, In ethics, the doctrine that actions should be judged right or wrong on the basis of their consequences. Federal Privacy Protections: Ethical Foundations, Sources of Confusion in Clinical Medicine, and Controversies in Biomedical Research, Mary Anderlik Majumder, JD, PhD and Christi J. Guerrini, JD. Consequentialism is based on two principles: Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. Indeed, many First published Wed Nov 21, 2007; substantive revision Fri Oct 30, 2020. Our duty to others can be illustrated using another example, one used by contemporary utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. Religion plays a large part in the ethical issue of abortion, just like with . 2007;2(1):26. Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988). January 9, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/. 2005 Oct;25(5):312-27. The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. Medical law exists at the intersection between consequentialism and deontology. Daniel Schiff, MS and Jason Borenstein, PhD, Confidentiality/Duty to protect confidential information, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php, https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/, http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html, https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/, https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app, https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b, https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning, https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/, https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/, http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx, https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. 2021 Jul-Aug;42(4):787-791. doi: 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2021.04.020. Samples. Accessed July 25, 2018. Ethics Med Public Health. Accessed July 17, 2018. On the next ward is Patient A who has a curable disease and also is a suitable donor for the other patients. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. Implementing machine learning in health careaddressing ethical challenges. While FRT systems in health care can de-identify data, some experts are skeptical that such data can be truly anonymized21; from clinical and ethical perspectives, informing patients about this kind of risk is critical. Nurses use their moral reasoning based on their beliefs and values when faced with ethical dilemmas. Applying Utilitarianism in Business. For the consequentialist it is obvious that the right choice for Jim would be to kill one Indian in order to save the lives of the other nineteen. These can be thought of as rules or duties that we have to ourselves and to others regardless of their consequences. arXiv. As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. Williams example shows that consequentialism disregards the agents own personal commitments and allows for negative responsibility. Equality is certainly one of the key principles behind Utilitarian philosophy.

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